What Is the Blue Burial Dress Used in Ireland
The Bronze Age in Ireland can be divided into three time periods. The Early Bronze Age (2500-1600BC), the Middle Bronze Age (1600-1200BC) and Late Bronze Age (1200-700BC). As useful and necessary as these brackets are for the purposes of discussion, it is important to remember that they are an 'imprecise simplification' (Waddell 2010, 187). This is particularly the case when considering the ending of the Neolithic period and the beginning of the Bronze Age. Rather than a 'definitive end' (Baine 2014, 21) to the Neolithic there was a period of slow transition, evolution and overlap of Neolithic and Bronze Age culture and society. This article examines the development of Bronze Age burial practices through firstly looking at the types of inhumation architecture (i.e., tomb construction and style) and secondly through a closer examination of the pottery 'traditions' associated with Bronze Age burials.
Wedge Tombs
Wedge Tombs are the most numerous megalithic tomb type in Ireland, with over 540 examples recorded (Waddell 2010, 102). Dating of human remains from examples at Lough Gur and Labbacallee demonstrate that these tombs were used from at least 2500/2300BC onward (Shee Twohig 2004, 57) placing them firmly within the Neolithic/Early Bronze Age transition period. It appears that construction of these tombs may have petered out in the latter part of the Early Bronze Age, c. 1900-1600BC (Ó Súilleabháin, Downey & Downey 2018, 352). Wedge Tombs are named for their profile, which takes on a wedge-like appearance in that the chamber of the tombs tend to decrease in height and width from front to rear (Waddell 2010, 102). The tombs are usually orientated on a 'north-east to south-west axis' (Shee Twohig 2004, 49).
There are two main types of Wedge Tombs, straightforward wedge, 'box-like structures' and chambers which are longer 'low galleries' (Ó Súilleabháin, Downey & Downey 2018, 350). As their 'megalithic' categorisation implies, Wedge Tombs are built out of large stones. The 'walls' or sides of the chamber are constructed from large upright orthostats. The chamber is then roofed by large capstones placed between the walls, usually resting directly on top of the orthostats (Shee Twohig 2004, 52). Many of these capstones feature 'cupmarks', which are small circular hollows that have an average diameter of 5cm (Ó Súilleabháin, Downey & Downey 2018, 331). Wedge Tombs can vary considerably in size, examples can be seen within a range of approximately two to eleven meters in length (Shee Twohig 2004, 49). The more basic Wedge Tombs tend to consist merely of the wedge-shaped chamber, however the more elaborate and larger examples often have a 'portico' at the western end in front of the main chamber, and some also have a small 'cell' at the eastern end of the main chamber (Ó Súilleabháin, Downey & Downey 2018, 330). Often there is a second row of orthostats, an outer line around the chamber, which formed the edge of a cairn (Shee Twohig 2004, 52). These 'cairns' or coverings/mounds over the tombs tend to be associated with larger tomb examples. There is some variance of cairn shape, some are round, others U or D shaped (Ó Súilleabháin, Downey & Downey 2018, 331) and they sometimes have a kerb (Waddell 2010, 102).
Wedge Tombs can be found across a large portion of Ireland, but they appear to be concentrated in the west, with 56% of recorded Wedge Tombs concentrated in north and south Munster (Ó Súilleabháin, Downey & Downey 2018, 352).
While there are many theories regarding the origin of Wedge Tombs, Waddell points out that it remains a 'perplexing puzzle' (Waddell 2010, 109). One of the predominant suggestions is that there may be a link between Irish Wedge Tombs and a similar, although larger, gallery type tomb found in France, the Neolithic allées couvertes (Shee Twohig 2004, 57), however the extent of any influence these tombs had remains unconfirmed.
Only some twenty-eight or so Wedge Tombs have been excavated (Shee Twohig 2004, 53). While there is considerable data, we do not have enough to provide a clear picture of the precise nature of burial/funerary rituals and grave-goods, although it appears that cremation, rather than inhumation, may have been the predominant rite (Waddell 2010, 107). Some tombs facilitated access for further use indicating that the tombs could be used to inter remains over a protracted period of time (Ó Súilleabháin, Downey & Downey 2018, 354). While the main use for Wedge Tombs was to house human remains, it has been concluded that there was a resultant ongoing ritual use for the sites, and that they also possibly served as 'symbolic expressions' as well as to mark territorial boundaries (Ó Súilleabháin, Downey & Downey 2018, 354-355).
Boulder Burials
Boulder Burials, or 'Boulder Monuments' are a form of monument predominantly found in counties Cork and Kerry in the south-west of Ireland (Waddell 2010, 179). They take their name from the large boulder or slab which is their defining characteristic. Boulder Monuments consist of the aforementioned large stone or slab propped upon three or more low stones, without a formal chamber (Ó Nualláin 1978, 75). A number of Boulder Monuments have been found to cover burial pits containing possible human remains, hence the inference that these monuments were intended to mark burials (Ó Súilleabháin, Downey & Downey 2018, 373). These monuments stand at ground level and there is no evidence that the boulder was covered by a mound or cairn (Ó Nualláin 1978, 76). The boulders themselves are typically around one to two meters in length, by one meter in width, and one meter in thickness (Ó Súilleabháin, Downey & Downey 2018, 373). In a number of instances these monuments are associated with wider ritual sites such as stone circles, as is the case at Breeny More in county Cork where four Boulder Burials are located within the radius of the large stone circle there (Waddell 2010, 179).
Relatively few in number, they are believed to date from around 1500-800BC, from the Middle to Late Bronze Age (Ó Súilleabháin, Downey & Downey 2018, 372).
Cist and Pit Burials
As discussed above, some Bronze Age burials took on the monumental character of the Megalithic. However, in the main, Bronze Age burials consisted of Cist or Pit burials, sometimes in association with the aforementioned megalithic style monuments.
In basic terms, a Cist can be described as a hole dug in the ground, usually rectangular, which is then lined with stone to serve as a grave (Flanagan 1992, 55). Some 700 plus cist burials have been recorded (Waddell 1990, 16). The size of Cists can vary considerably, but most frequently they are 'at most large enough to contain the crouched corpse of an adult' (Waddell 1990, 16).
Dating has demonstrated that Cists were constructed over the period 2200-1850BC (McLaughlin, T. Rowan et al 2016, 135).
Pits, in contrast, are unlined holes in the ground. Generally oval or sub-rectangular, they vary considerably in size, from pits large enough to accommodate a crouched adult, to small ones just large enough to contain pottery or cremated remains (Waddell 1990, 16). The number of recorded Pits is less than that of Cists, although this could be due to the fact that stone lined Cists are more durable (Baine 2014, 34). Both Cists and Pits generally contain either a single burial, or if more than one, tend not to contain the remains of a large number of individuals.
While Cist and Pit burials are widespread and can be found as lone or isolated examples, many are found grouped together in 'cemeteries', loosely categorised as 'Flat Cemeteries' and 'Cemetery Mounds' (Waddell 2010, 166-167). Flat cemeteries are groups of burials that do not have some identifying surface feature remaining, such as a mound, perhaps explaining why they are somewhat inadequately excavated and identified. However, the evidence that we do have does demonstrate that flat cemeteries can consist of a 'mix' of Cist and Pit burials (Baine 2014, 34).
Cemetery mounds, by contrast, do have an identifying surface feature. According to Waddell, the term 'mound' encompasses earlier Neolithic mounds reused for burials, as well as mounds contemporary with the burial (often referred to as 'Barrows') 'perhaps built to cover just one or two graves, with secondary burials inserted at a later date' (Waddell 2010, 167). One example of an earlier mound in which later Bronze Age burials were inserted is the 'Mound of the Hostages' at Tara in county Meath (Fig 2). In this instance approximately 30 Bronze Age burials were inserted into the passage tomb, some inside the passage tomb itself, but the majority into the mound covering it (Waddell 2010, 167).
Burial Pottery Traditions
While there is some variance in Bronze Age 'burial architecture' the evolution and development of grave 'contents' and inhumation style over the course of Bronze Age must also be traced and categorised. This is best done by reference to the changing styles of the most commonly found grave artefact, pottery vessels (Waddell 2010, 151).
The style of pottery used in Bronze Age burials can broken down into four 'traditions':
1. Bowl Tradition
This style spanned a date range of c2500-1700BC (Baine 2014, 28). The 'Bowls' were highly decorated, usually 8 to 15cm in height and the majority have been found in Cists or Pits (Waddell 2010, 152). Some 43% have been found with unburnt remains, in these instances the bowl is invariably found next to the head of the crouched skeleton (Waddell 2010, 152). The remainder have been found with cremated remains, and were usually placed adjacent to the remains of the burned bones, but bone has occasionally been found inside the bowl (Waddell 2010, 152). The greater proportion of Bowl Tradition burials are found in the north and east of the country, in contrast to Wedge Tombs which are found in the west and south (Waddell 2010, 154).
2. Vase Tradition
This style spanned a date range pf c1970-1520 BC (Baine 2014,28). These vases range from 11 to 16cm in height and most of them have incised decoration on most of the exterior (Waddell 2010, 154). Vases are usually found with cremated remains (Baine 2014, 29). In some instances, these small vases are found along with larger associated 'urns', designed to hold or cover cremated remains (Waddell 2010, 156-158).
3. Collared Urn Tradition
The use of Collared Urns spanned roughly two centuries from c1850-1650BC (Baine 2014, 28) and take their name from their distinctive 'thickened, broad and flat rim' (Baine 2014, 30). 72% of this style of urn have been found in counties Antrim, Derry and Down with the remainder spread over the south and east (Waddell 2010, 161), perhaps reflecting influence from across the Irish Sea. The majority of Collared Urns are found in Pit Burials, covering cremated bones (Waddell 2010, 161).
4. Cordoned Urn Tradition
This style of urn spanned a date range of approximately 1890-1450BC (Baine 2014, 28) and take their name from distinctive ridges or ribs running around the body of the urn, which is 'almost straight sided or slightly barrel shaped' (Waddell 2010, 161). They are generally found in the context of having been placed, upturned, over cremated remains (Baine 2014, 31). The majority have been found in pits, although a small number have been recovered from Cists (Waddell 2010, 161).
Pottery and human remains are not the only items that have been found in Bronze Age burials. A considerable range of other grave-goods have also been recovered, such as gold, silver, bronze, flint, stone and bone items including earrings, daggers, knives, flints, bracelets, buttons, beads, necklaces and other items (Waddell 1990, 21-27).
Conclusion
Over the course of the Bronze Age we can see a clear development from the more communal inhumation styles of the Neolithic period to more individualistic methods of burial, whereby a small number of persons are interred in individual 'graves' albeit often in a community cemetery setting. However, there is something lacking in our understanding of what happened after the conclusion of the four pottery traditions and before more modern Iron Age and later burial traditions evolved. There does not seem to have an evolution of new pottery styles to replace what went before, but rather these funerary styles seemed to have gradually declined in tandem with a shift to a funerary rite which seems to have left far less visible archaeological evidence then that which went before (Waddell 2010, 171). (Although an important exception to this is that of the previously discussed Boulder Monuments). Waddell suggests that 'simple cremations in pits or token burials of very small amounts of burnt bone' became the norm in the latter centuries of the Bronze Age (Waddell 2010, 171). As to why this happened, the reasoning remains a mystery.
Bibliography
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Flanagan, Laurence. 1992 A Dictionary of Irish Archaeology. Dublin, Gill & Macmillan Ltd.
McLaughlin, T. Rowan, et al. 'The Changing Face of Neolithic and Bronze Age Ireland: A Big Data Approach to the Settlement and Burial Records.' Journal of World Prehistory, vol. 29, no. 2, 2016, pp. 117–53. Crossref, doi:10.1007/s10963-016-9093-0.
Ó Nualláin, S. "Boulder-Burials." Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Section C: Archaeology, Celtic Studies, History, Linguistics, Literature , vol. 78, 1978, pp. 75–114. JSTOR ,www.jstor.org/stable/25506352. Accessed 21 Feb. 2021.
Ó Súilleabháin M, Downey L & Downey D, 2018 Antiquities of Rural Ireland. Ireland; Wordwell.
Shee Twohig, E. 2004 Irish Megalithic Tombs. United Kingdom; Shire Archaeology.
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Waddell, J. 1990 The Bronze Age Burials of Ireland. Galway; Galway University Press.
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